For over four decades, Pakistan has shouldered the burden of hosting millions of Afghan refugees, a humanitarian effort now strained by economic, social, and security challenges as undocumented arrivals continue amid shifting regional dynamics.

Following the Soviet military intervention in Afghanistan in December 1979, Pakistan witnessed a massive influx of Afghan refugees. That was over four decades ago, and since then, Pakistan has hosted and accommodated them in every possible way. The prolonged presence of Afghan refugees, along with their continuous inflow whenever the political situation in their country changes, has had significant political, security, ethnic, economic, and social implications for Pakistan. Over the past forty years, there have been three major waves of Afghan refugees: the first following the Soviet invasion, the second after the 9/11 War on Terror (WoT), and the third after the Taliban's second takeover following the U.S. withdrawal in 2021.
Although several small groups of Afghan refugees have voluntarily repatriated to Afghanistan occasionally, new ones continue to arrive, balancing those who leave. As of now, there are still over 3.7 million Afghans in Pakistan, of whom only 1.7 million are legal, and the rest are illegal residents with no documentation. According to United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), more than 300,000 Afghans again fled to Pakistan since the Taliban takeover of Kabul. 
The huge problems faced by Pakistan due to the unusually large inflow of Afghan nationals continue to resonate even forty years after the traumatic events of the Soviet invasion. Unfortunately, this continuous pressure and the negative impact have become unbearable and are a major factor in the overall internal instability in the country.
Some of the major problems, among many others, are briefly outlined as follows:
Constant friction between Afghan refugees and the Pakistani population due to land occupied by the refugees.
Rising unemployment, as refugees—particularly unregistered and illegal ones—tend to work at much lower wages.
Afghan traders operate businesses in various cities but do not pay taxes. For instance, many traders became billionaires in Peshawar alone yet managed to evade taxation. This has burdened local taxpayers and business owners, adversely affecting revenue collection and economic growth.
Intense competition for limited animal grazing pastures and disputes over water supply. According to UNHCR, Afghan refugees brought 45,000 camels, 35,000 cows, 25,000 donkeys, and thousands of other livestock, with their numbers increasing over the years.
Limited healthcare facilities, housing shortages, and a sharp rise in property prices due to increased demand, placing unbearable pressure on schools and other academic institutions.
The influx of unregistered arms has led to a Kalashnikov culture and easy access to automatic small arms, threatening Pakistan’s internal security. This has resulted in a sharp rise in terrorism, crime rates, murders, and kidnappings for ransom due to the presence of illegal refugees.
A direct threat to Pakistan's internal security and political stability is the growing pressure on its western borders due to ongoing violence and terrorism emanating from within Afghanistan. Pakistan has witnessed a phenomenal rise in terrorist attacks across the country, particularly in Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP). It is not only the frequency but also the intensity of these attacks that has become completely unacceptable. In just one week, there were 54 attacks, including the devastating assault on the Jaffar Express. Terrorists are deliberately and maliciously targeting civilians, security personnel, and armed forces. The brazen attacks on security forces in KP have shocked the entire nation. Behind these attacks are Fitna al-Khawarij (FAK) and other banned organizations, all of whom receive backing from both India and Afghanistan. These operations are being conducted from Afghan territory, where their leaders continue to thrive in safe havens.
The massive influx of drugs, which has now permeated all sections of society—particularly young and vulnerable children and young adults—has become an urgent issue. Additionally, Pakistan has become a transit point for drug trafficking to the rest of the world, severely tarnishing its soft image.
When refugees belong to the same ethnicity as the local population, they often receive sympathy and shelter due to ethnic nationalism, as seen in KP. However, if refugees come from different ethnic and linguistic groups, clashes of interest arise. In Balochistan, the local Baloch population perceives refugees as a threat to the delicate ethnic balance.
With the connivance of local officials, a large number of Afghan refugees have acquired Computerized National Identity Cards (CNICs) and passports, adopting Pakistani identities. In Balochistan, in particular, this poses a challenge to the majority status of locals.
Baloch nationalists in Pakistan are among the main forces demanding the repatriation of refugees and illegal immigrants to Afghanistan.
When the interests of refugees and the local population clash, locals, in an effort to safeguard their interests, take a strong stance against refugees, as witnessed in KP on several occasions.
The presence of Afghan refugees, particularly illegal immigrants, has contributed to rising inflation, child labor, and the spread of various diseases, such as poliomyelitis and malaria.
Pakistan, however, is not only home to millions of Afghan refugees and illegal immigrants but also to nationals from several other countries, including Bangladesh, Myanmar, Bosnia, the Middle East, and some African states. The presence of Afghan and other refugees in large metropolitan cities—particularly in KP, Balochistan, urban Sindh, and the twin cities of Islamabad and Rawalpindi—has serious consequences for Pakistan.
Hosting a large number of Afghan refugees has placed an enormous burden on Pakistan’s limited resources, among other pressing issues. International aid for Afghan refugees was completely halted in 1998. In 2023, the UNHCR provided only a token amount of PKR 25,000 per month directly to registered Afghan families, which is far from adequate. Pakistan bears all other expenses without any assistance from the UNHCR or the international community. With new crises emerging worldwide, Afghan refugees and illegal Afghan immigrants in Pakistan have faded from international attention. However, Pakistan continues to grapple with this reality daily, along with all its associated challenges. The warm response of the Pakistani people toward Afghan refugees has also diminished considerably since the initial outpouring of sympathy in 1979.
To protect our national interests and ensure both internal and external security, Pakistan must take firm decisions. This should include the incorporation of requisite laws to prevent any illegal or undesirable elements from exploiting policy ambiguities. Following the Taliban's return to power last year, Pakistan, like other countries in the region, has officially closed its borders to new refugees. Nevertheless, thousands continue to enter Pakistan through various points along its long and porous border with Afghanistan. Therefore, the government's recent initiative to identify and deport all illegal immigrants, including Afghans, to their countries of origin is a welcome step.
It is important to note that Pakistan is not a signatory to the 1951 UN Refugee Convention or the 1967 Refugee Protocol, which define the term "refugee" and outline their rights, as well as the legal obligations of host states. As such, Pakistan is not legally bound to accept any refugees. Yet, despite this, we have not only welcomed them but have also continued to support them for the past four decades.
As Ahmer Bilal Soofi explained in his recent article, Pakistan lacks a national migration policy and has no laws defining refugees or their rights. The entry and stay of foreign nationals are regulated under four different laws, leading to an ad-hoc approach to the refugee issue. While the Naturalization Act grants nationality to children born in Pakistan, this provision is not extended to Afghan refugees, with all such requests historically rejected at both administrative and judicial levels. This has further complicated the situation, particularly for Afghans born in Pakistan who now have families of their own.
Until last year, Pakistan’s policy was to extend refugee status only to those classified as refugees by the UNHCR, which operates under the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol. These frameworks assign international legal responsibilities to host states, establish the principle of non-refoulement to prevent forced repatriation, and define "refugee status" for asylum seekers. This has created a stark disconnect between Pakistani state policy and UNHCR mandates, most notably seen in Pakistan’s fencing of the shared border with Afghanistan in 2021.
Despite some institutional arrangements by the government, such as the establishment of the Ministry of States and Frontier Regions (SAFRON) and the Office of the Chief Commissioner of Afghan Refugees (CCAR), there has long been no approved parliamentary policy with political ownership to address refugee management, integration, or deportation.
In 2000-2007, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and the UNHCR signed a tripartite agreement, granting Afghan refugees in Pakistan the right to register and obtain a Proof of Registration (PoR) card. These cards were issued by Pakistan’s National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA) in collaboration with SAFRON and the UNHCR. They required annual renewal and remained valid until 2020, after which their data was transferred to biometric identity documents.
PoR cardholders can temporarily stay in Pakistan, have freedom of movement, and access public health and education. They can rent property, open bank accounts, and register family births. However, they cannot legally work, although many do work in the informal sector. According to UNHCR, verification of around 1.4 million registered refugees had been completed, and close to one million had been issued the PoRs.
In 2017, Pakistan launched another program to register the hitherto undocumented Afghans by issuing Afghan Citizenship Cards (ACCs). The ACC is a temporary identity document for Afghans having no other forms of identification and offers limited benefits compared with the PoR. ACC holders are entitled to stay temporarily in Pakistan and have freedom of movement but cannot access public health services or education. Some reports say more than 840,000 refugees have been issued these cards.
Repatriation of Afghan refugees also needs to be organized in line with the recognized international law, the UN Convention of 1951, and the Refugee Protocol of 1967, even though Pakistan is not a signatory of this Convention and the Refugee Protocol. There is no doubt that the Afghan refugees have outstayed their welcome on our soil. Besides, Afghanistan's political and security situation is slowly but surely improving. Afghanistan desperately needs young and educated Afghan refugees to return to their country and contribute to socioeconomic development, which is a prerequisite for long-term political stability and securityThe world offers examples of nations where returning expatriates, including refugees, have contributed to development. Some prime examples include China, Ireland, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Vietnam.
A large number of countries in the world, particularly countries of North America, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, have comprehensive policies dealing with asylum cases, refugees, and illegal immigrants as these countries are favored destinations for migrants for a variety of reasons. These nations are legally obliged to accommodate refugees fleeing from their countries due to natural disasters and socioeconomic and political compulsions. They host millions of foreigners, including Pakistanis, and can deal with them by international law and local regulations. As affluent countries, they have financial provisions for refugees in their annual budgets. Besides, they get full support from the international community and UNHCR as they are all signatories to the UN Convention of 1951 and the Refugee Protocol of 1967. 
Yet in recent years, we have seen these developed Western countries, many being social welfare states, frustrated on account of the heightened influx of refugees fleeing from former colonies of the United Kingdom (UK) and Europe from areas like Africa, the Middle East, Iran, and Afghanistan because of conflict and war imposed on them by the West, among other factors. Like Pakistan, they are also facing the negative fallout of hosting large numbers of refugees and illegal immigrants. 
It would not be wrong to say that a large concentration of refugees and illegal migrants has become an existential issue for the West. Brexit, the rise of Islamophobia, the rise of populism and extreme-right and extreme-left politics, home-grown terrorism, economic difficulties, unemployment, social and communal tensions, and the fall of moderate governments one after the other in recent years in the U.S. and Europe can well be attributed to the difficulties arising out of the massive influx of refugees. EU has almost reached a breaking point regarding differences in how to distribute refugees equitably and cap the number of refugees accepted in their countries.
To protect their national interest, countries have, one after the other, taken measures to either close their borders and refuse entry to immigrants or have taken draconian measures to expel them. For example, Australia apprehends incoming immigrants on the high seas and detains them on a remote island 300 nautical miles from the mainland till the legal and judicial procedures are completed; the Netherlands has built a floating prison to keep illegal immigrants and refugees at sea till their cases are sorted. UK, Italy, Greece, and others try not to let migrant boats dock on their shores. Coastal authorities in some countries refuse to assist drowning refugee boats and ships facing technical difficulties. A tragic example was the sinking of a boat off the coast of Greece, where over 300 Pakistanis lost their lives, despite these countries being legally obligated to accept refugees. Meanwhile, the United States has constructed a wall to prevent immigrants and refugees from Latin and South America, particularly from Mexico.
It is a normal and acceptable policy and practice of all Western and other countries to check and deport illegal residents regularly. Anyone overstaying their visa duration or misusing their visa status is promptly arrested and deported. The International Organization for Migration (IOM) regularly operates flights for the repatriation of illegal immigrants. Even in our region, we have seen Iran sending back approximately 10,31,757 refugees back to Afghanistan as it could not bear to host them any longer.
Pakistan is, therefore, well within its right to clear its territory of illegal migrants and also to repatriate Afghan refugees. Intensifying its crackdown on Afghan refugees, new movement restrictions, and increased detentions and deportations of undocumented foreigners is the only way to control the increasing threats to Pakistan's internal and external security.

The writer has served as an Ambassador to China, the European Union, Belgium, Luxembourg. and Ireland. She has also authored and edited several books, including Magnificent Pakistan, Pakistan-China All Weather Friendship, and Lost Cities of Indus. 
E-mail: [email protected]