Social media in Pakistan has become a double-edged sword, amplifying voices while also being exploited for divisive propaganda.

Social media has revolutionized communication, transforming how people interact, share information, and perceive the world. However, this digital landscape has also become a fertile ground for propaganda and misinformation. In Pakistan, the rise of propaganda warfare on social media is a growing concern with profound implications for society, politics, and the economy. The strategic use of psychological operations (psyops), false news, fake identities, manipulated hashtags, and bots has created a volatile digital environment. This article explores the mechanisms of propaganda warfare on social media in Pakistan, its negative impacts, and the remedial measures required to address this critical issue.
Understanding Propaganda and Psyops in the Digital Age
Propaganda is the deliberate dissemination of information—often biased or misleading—to influence public opinion and behaviour. In the digital realm, psychological operations (psyops) amplify this influence by targeting emotions, beliefs, and decision-making processes. In Pakistan, social media platforms like Facebook, X (formerly recognized as Twitter), and Instagram are frequently used to disseminate propaganda to achieve political, ideological, and economic goals.
Tools of Propaganda Warfare
False News and Misinformation. False news and misinformation are central to digital propaganda, ranging from fabricated stories and doctored images to misrepresented facts. Viral falsehoods often exploit sensationalism and emotions, making them more likely to be shared.
Manipulated Hashtags. Hashtags play a pivotal role in organizing conversations on social media. Propagandists use manipulated hashtags to trend specific narratives, often hijacking genuine discussions. For instance, coordinated campaigns have used hashtags to promote divisive ideologies or discredit political opponents in Pakistan.
Bots and Automation. Bots are automated accounts programmed to mimic human activity. They are deployed to flood social media with repetitive messages, inflate follower counts, and manipulate trending topics. Countries like the United States and Russia have reported extensive bot usage in electoral campaigns, and similar tactics have been observed in Pakistan’s political and ideological battles.

In Pakistan, social media platforms like Facebook, X (formerly recognized as Twitter), and Instagram are frequently used to disseminate propaganda to achieve political, ideological, and economic goals.

Youth in the Crosshairs: Social Media Propaganda and Misinformation Targeting Pakistani Youth
The youth of Pakistan, particularly Millennials and Generation Z, are disproportionately affected by social media propaganda and misinformation. This demographic, which forms a significant portion of the country’s population, is highly active on platforms such as TikTok, Instagram, Facebook, and X. As digital natives, they are both the primary consumers and unintentional disseminators of online content, making them prime targets for psychological operations and propaganda campaigns.
One of the key strategies employed is the use of emotionally charged narratives to manipulate young users. For instance, campaigns spreading extremist ideologies often employ sensationalized videos and images, tapping into the frustrations and aspirations of young audiences. According to a 2021 survey by the Pakistan Institute for Peace Studies, over 45 percent of youth admitted encountering extremist or divisive content on social media platforms. Such exposure not only radicalizes individuals but also creates echo chambers that reinforce biased worldviews, hindering critical thinking.

The youth of Pakistan, particularly Millennials and Generation Z, are disproportionately affected by social media propaganda and misinformation. This demographic, which forms a significant portion of the country’s population, is highly active on platforms such as TikTok, Instagram, Facebook, and X.

In addition to ideological manipulation, misinformation campaigns targeting Millennials and Generation Z often involve fabricated news stories about job opportunities, educational reforms, or celebrity scandals. This erodes trust in reliable sources and fosters a culture of scepticism and misinformation. International examples, such as Russia's influence campaigns targeting American youth during the 2016 U.S. elections, underscore the global nature of this phenomenon and its potential consequences.
The ramifications for Pakistani youth are profound. Continuous exposure to propaganda can lead to mental health issues, diminished civic engagement, and a distorted sense of reality. The 2023 "Digital Habits of Pakistani Youth" report by Bytes for All highlighted that over 60 percent of young users felt overwhelmed by conflicting narratives on social media, affecting their mental well-being. Addressing this issue requires targeted interventions, including educational initiatives to promote media literacy and the implementation of robust online safety measures.
Cross-Border Propaganda: How Social Media is Used from Outside Pakistan
Social media platforms have become tools for cross-border propaganda, with hostile actors leveraging these platforms to destabilize Pakistan. Countries with vested interests in Pakistan’s internal affairs, including some neighbouring nations, have been reported to funded and supported disinformation campaigns aimed at creating chaos and division.
A notable example is the use of fake accounts and networks to spread anti-Pakistan narratives. In 2021, a report by the EU DisinfoLab exposed a coordinated campaign involving over 750 fake media outlets operating in 116 countries. Many of these outlets targeted Pakistan, promoting anti-state narratives and exacerbating ethnic and religious tensions. Additionally, foreign funding has been traced to online influencers and organizations that amplify divisive content, further complicating efforts to identify and counter these campaigns.
Bots and automated systems are often deployed to trend hashtags or flood discussions with misleading information. This tactic mirrors strategies used by other nations, such as Russia's campaigns during the annexation of Crimea.
The implications of cross-border propaganda are severe. By exploiting existing societal vulnerabilities, these campaigns undermine national unity, weaken public trust in institutions, and create an environment conducive to extremism. Combating this issue requires a multifaceted approach, including international cooperation to trace and block hostile networks, public awareness campaigns to educate citizens about disinformation, and robust cybersecurity measures to safeguard Pakistan’s digital infrastructure.

According to a 2021 survey by the Pakistan Institute for Peace Studies, over 45 percent of youth admitted encountering extremist or divisive content on social media platforms.

The Global Playbook: International Lobbying Firms, Diaspora Groups, and Political Smearing Campaigns Against Pakistan
International lobbying firms and diaspora groups have increasingly leveraged social media to disseminate disinformation and conduct political smearing campaigns against Pakistan. These efforts, often funded by state and non-state actors, aim to undermine Pakistan's global image and internal stability. 
Diaspora groups play a significant role in these campaigns. They use their access to international audiences and resources to craft narratives that resonate within foreign policy circles. For instance, lobbying expenditures in the U.S. have been substantial, with multiple firms working on agendas to discredit Pakistan's stance on various issues. Such efforts are amplified through paid advertisements, manipulated hashtags, and the creation of fake social media accounts to simulate grassroots opposition.
Political smearing campaigns were rampant on social media platforms during Pakistan's 2024 general elections. A report by the DRF highlighted a significant increase in disinformation and harmful content, with major political parties spending a collective PKR 54 million (approximately USD 190,000) on running ads for their campaigns on Facebook and Instagram. This influx of political advertising and inconsistent content moderation contributed to an environment where false information could thrive, further polarizing the electorate.

The 2023 "Digital Habits of Pakistani Youth" report by Bytes for All highlighted that over 60 percent of young users felt overwhelmed by conflicting narratives on social media, affecting their mental well-being.

These campaigns tarnish Pakistan's international reputation and influence policy decisions in global arenas, leading to economic and diplomatic setbacks. Combating this sophisticated disinformation requires strategic countermeasures, such as fostering robust diplomatic engagement, enhancing digital literacy among the populace, and leveraging digital diplomacy to present Pakistan's global perspective effectively.
Negative Impacts of Propaganda Warfare
Social Polarization and Division. Propaganda campaigns exacerbate existing societal divisions by promoting polarization. In Pakistan, such campaigns have deepened ethnic, religious, and political divides, undermining social cohesion and harmony. 
Erosion of Trust. The prevalence of misinformation erodes public trust in institutions, media, and even interpersonal relationships. In Pakistan, repeated exposure to false narratives has created scepticism toward authentic news sources and government statements. Globally, countries like Brazil and the Philippines report similar trends due to unchecked fake news.
Economic Consequences. Misinformation can have direct economic repercussions. Fake news about financial markets, businesses, or government policies can lead to panic, market instability, and loss of investor confidence. For example, on May 19, 2022, there was a drop of 2.5 percent in a single day due to economic policies. Similar trends have been observed in countries like Türkiye and Argentina, where misinformation triggered economic unrest.
Threats to National Security. Propaganda warfare poses a significant threat to national security by spreading extremist ideologies, inciting violence, and undermining state authority. In Pakistan, hostile actors have used social media to conduct disinformation campaigns targeting the military and government institutions. North Atlantic Treaty Organization’s (NATO’s) 2020 report on hybrid warfare identifies social media propaganda as a key element in destabilizing states.
Impact on the Future. The unchecked spread of propaganda and misinformation jeopardizes Pakistan’s future by influencing elections, shaping public discourse, and fostering a culture of intolerance. If left unaddressed, these issues could undermine democracy, stability, and societal progress. Global examples, such as the Cambridge Analytica scandal, illustrate the far-reaching consequences of social media manipulation.

In 2021, a report by the EU DisinfoLab exposed a coordinated campaign involving over 750 fake media outlets operating in 116 countries. Many of these outlets targeted Pakistan, promoting anti-state narratives and exacerbating ethnic and religious tensions.

Formation and Implementation of Laws
Existing Laws in Pakistan. Pakistan’s Prevention of Electronic Crimes Act (PECA) 2016 aims to regulate online behaviour and curb cybercrimes, including misinformation. However, enforcement remains weak due to limited resources and technical expertise.
International Case Studies. Countries like Germany and Singapore have enacted stringent laws to combat fake news. Germany’s NetzDG law imposes heavy fines on social media platforms that fail to remove unlawful content within 24 hours. Similarly, Singapore’s Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Act (POFMA) empowers authorities to order false content corrections or removals.
Pakistan should consider adopting similar measures, such as:
Establishing fast-track courts to expedite the resolution of cybercrime cases.
Introducing penalties for social media platforms that fail to address the spread of fake news.
Allocating adequate resources to enhance digital forensic capabilities for tracking the sources of misinformation.
Remedial Measures
Strengthening Media Literacy. Promoting media literacy is essential to equip citizens with the skills to evaluate information critically. Educational campaigns should focus on teaching individuals how to identify credible sources, verify facts, and recognize propaganda tactics. For instance, Finland's media literacy programs have significantly reduced misinformation spread among its citizens.

Germany’s NetzDG law imposes heavy fines on social media platforms that fail to remove unlawful content within 24 hours. Similarly, Singapore’s Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Act (POFMA) empowers authorities to order false content corrections or removals.

Regulating Social Media Platforms. Government agencies and tech companies must collaborate to enforce stricter regulations on social media platforms. This includes identifying and removing fake accounts, mitigating bot activity, and penalizing the dissemination of false information.
Promoting Ethical Journalism. Strengthening ethical journalism and fostering accountability in media organizations can help counter misinformation. Journalists and media outlets in Pakistan must adhere to rigorous standards of fact-checking and impartiality.
Developing Fact-Checking Mechanisms. Establishing independent fact-checking organizations can help debunk false narratives. Social media platforms should integrate these mechanisms to flag or remove misinformation in real-time.
Enhancing Cybersecurity. Investing in cybersecurity infrastructure is crucial to detect and neutralize disinformation campaigns. Pakistan should develop specialized units to monitor and counter hostile propaganda activities in the digital sphere.
Encouraging Responsible Social Media Usage. Public awareness campaigns should promote responsible social media usage. Encouraging users to verify information before sharing and to report fake accounts can contribute to a healthier online environment.

with concerted efforts—including media literacy, regulatory reforms, ethical journalism, and technological innovation—Pakistan can mitigate the adverse effects of digital propaganda.

International Collaboration. Given the global nature of social media, international collaboration is vital. Pakistan should work with other nations and global organizations to develop best practices and share intelligence on combating propaganda warfare.
The rise of propaganda warfare on Pakistani social media is a multifaceted challenge with far-reaching implications. It undermines societal harmony, disrupts economic stability, and threatens national security. However, with concerted efforts—including media literacy, regulatory reforms, ethical journalism, and technological innovation—Pakistan can mitigate the adverse effects of digital propaganda. By fostering a culture of critical thinking and responsible social media use, the nation can reclaim its digital spaces and ensure a brighter, more informed future for its citizens.

The author holds a Master’s degree in English Literature and a Ph.D. in Educational Administration.

References
• Digital Rights Foundation. (2022). "State of Digital Rights in Pakistan."
• Oxford Internet Institute. (2020). "The Global Disinformation Order: 2020 Report."
• Pew Research Center. (2021). "Social Media and Political Polarization in Emerging Economies."
• NATO Strategic Communications Centre of Excellence. (2020). "Hybrid Threats and Disinformation."
• Ministry of IT & Telecom Pakistan. (2016). "Prevention of Electronic Crimes Act (PECA)."
• European Commission. (2018). "Code of Practice on Disinformation."
• "Alt News". (2023). India’s Fact-Checking Initiative.
• Bundesministerium der Justiz. (2017). "Netzwerkdurchsetzungsgesetz (NetzDG) Implementation Report."